Othello and Race Essay

In Shakespeare’s literary creation â€Å"Othello,† the protagonist, Othello, is a high ranking black soldier in a community of white people. Though he had gained his high marks by sheer perseverance and dedication, as it is in the old times, there are the people’s doubts. He was, after all, still a black man. Shakespeare, through this tragedy had shown the stereotypes of our modern times; that being white presents superiority or a sense of control over people of a different race, specifically those of a darker color. Shakespeare, however, did not mean to degrade or discriminate but rather, he seemed to point out the common mistakes of people that ultimately caused racism. Othello’s race and basically his skin color had played a major factor in the story’s main theme, progress and twists. The story mainly revolve on the struggle of a black man and how he found his happiness, but was cut short by other people’s jealousy and deceit. In his fight for love, the fact that he was black was used against him. It was presented to the woman’s father in a sense that generalizes black people as untrustworthy. It was also the main reason Iago used to point out that his wife Desdemona betrayed him for the love of another man, a man who happens to be of pure white ancestry.

Julius Caesar ACT II Study Guide Questions Essay

1. Through the analogy of a ladder, how does Brutus explain what happens when someone gains power? 2. To what does Brutus compare Caesar? Why does Brutus feel that he must kill Caesar immediately? 3. What day is it? Why is this significant? 4. Brutus explains that he has not been able to sleep. How does he explain what happens to a man’s conscience between the â€Å"acting of a dreadful thing / And the first motion†? 5. How are Cassius and Brutus related? 6. Why does Brutus insist that the men do not need an oath? 7. Why do the men want Cicero on their side at first? Why do they change their minds? 8. Who does Cassius want to murder in addition to Caesar? 9. What is Brutus’s response to this idea? 10. How does Decius plan to get Caesar to come to the Capitol? 11. What has Portia noticed about Brutus’s recent behavior? 12. What reasons does Portia give to insist that Brutus reveal his feelings to her? 13. What does Portia do to prove her strength to Brutus? What is your reaction to this act? BONUS: An anachronism is when an author unknowingly or purposefully inserts something from a different period of time into his or her writing. Shakespeare uses an anachronism in this scene. See if you can find it. Why do you think Shakespeare might have used this anachronism? Scene Two 1. Why has Calpurnia been unable to sleep? About what omens does Calpurnia tell Caesar? 2. Why does Caesar insist on leaving the house? 3. On what evidence do the priests (â€Å"augerers†) recommend that Caesar not leave the house? 4. How does Decius convince Caesar to leave? 5. Caesar instructs his men to keep close to him. What is the irony? Scene Three 1. Artemidorus reads from a letter at the beginning of this scene. Who wrote the letter and what does Artemidorus plan to do with it?

Infidelity across the country Essay

There is a rise in infidelity across the country. It is becoming more common; affecting everyone from celebrities, presidents, married couples, and new lovers. People are more openly talking about infidelity. Infidelity has been on the rise for some time now and is expected to continue to rise. Free dictionary.com defines infidelity as unfaithfulness to a sexual partner especially a spouse. Infidelity statistics show cheating is on the rise; over 50% of both men and women have had a sexual relationship with a person other than their spouse during their marriage. There are many different causes and effects of infidelity, mostly negative, but some can be positive. One possible cause is availability and opportunity. There are so many options of cheating—emotional, cyber, and sexual. There are even more ways to hide it, most believe they will not get caught. When the opportunity arises, it is too tempting for most people to pass up. I took a survey in the class to see what fellow classmates believed was the most common cause of cheating. 60% believed that a change in perspective is the leading cause to infidelity. Another cause is technology. Technology makes cheating easier than it ever has been. Numerous people visit online chat rooms and dating sites. Several of those people stay in contact with their online friends, on a daily basis. According to the infidelity statistics nearly 60% of internet users flirt over internet. 40% of them have engaged in sexual conversation. 50% have contacted their online friends. Online porn directly contributes to divorce. There is a direct correlation between online infidelity and sexual affairs. Some people cheat for the thrill of the adrenaline. Knowing cheating is prohibited, they get a rush or high. These people want to avoid boredom in their life. They feel their life is predictable and they want to live on the edge. Familiarity can also play a role in cheating. As time passes, people know their partner very well; this can lead to lack of excitement. If excitement is found elsewhere it can drive a person to cheat. These people believe the grass is green er on the other side. When they become attracted to another they act on it. There are emotional feelings which can lead to infidelity. If one partner feels they are superior to the other, they believe they should cheat. They justify their  behavior by feeling they deserve to be with someone equal to them. Another factor is unexpressed anger or a desire to get even. If a partner has previously been caught cheating, the non-cheater may decide to cheat. They believe if they cheat, both will be equal, thus making them feel better. This type of reaction tends not to play out well, for either side. There are physical factors that play into infidelity. Not all people age gracefully. Some people cheat if they get the chance. They want to prove they still can. As their age increases, their self-esteem decreases. They begin to wonder if they are still attractive to the opposite sex. Many people get into an affair just for the affirmation they still have it. Another physical factor is the environment they grew up in. If children are raised in a home where parents or other family cheat, they believe it is perfectly alright. Young individuals are taught, by family and friends, to believe that monogamy is unnat ural and cheating is acceptable. They then apply this learned behavior to their own life. This further increases the trend of continuous cheating. Another cause of the increase in cheating is different sexual experiences. One sexual partner may be more experienced, leaving them bored with their less experienced partner. Some people have a sexual addiction, like Tiger Woods. He had an amazing life, #1 golfer, nice house, beautiful wife, good family, but it still wasn’t enough for him. He admitted to multiple infidelities while married. He also confessed to having a sexual addiction, which he sought treatment for. However, this could not save his marriage; it ended with a public divorce. Celebrity affairs impact the rise in cheating. These affairs are made public, talked about on TV, in magazines, and on the radio. The mistresses are followed by the press, offered money for their story, and become celebrity-like overnight. The most recent public example is focused on General David Petraeus and his biographer, Paula Broadwell. The General worked for the CIA, he willingly resigned after news of the affair was made public. In his resignation note he stated, â€Å"I showed extremely poor judgment by engaging in an extramarital affair. Such behavior is unacceptable, both as a husband and as a leader of an organization [CIA] such as ours.† Not only did this have a negative impact on his marriage, but his life long career as well. The most well-known affair would be with President Bill Clinton and Monica Lewinsky. Clinton struggled with the decision to talk publically about the  affair. He contacted a friend for advice on if he should come out with the truth. He stated â€Å"I didn’t do what they said I did, but I may have done so much that I can’t prove my innocence.† His friend advised him to tell the truth, he said the American people will forgive adultery but not lies. People spoke of impeaching him, but this never happened, he finished out his term. The effects of cheating are devastating. It affects the person on the receiving end more than it does the cheater. Infidelity can have effects on both partners. Not all relationships can make it through this hard time. A majority of people affected by infidelity want to let the relationship go and move on. The person, who was cheated on, ends up with a shattered self-image. He/she is infected with severe self-doubt and blame. They can’t help but become depressed or even suicidal. This could cause them to lose faith/trust in both people and relationships. People directly affected by infidelity are more likely to be insecure or angry. If they do not seek professional help it could result in continuous problems. Most effects of cheating are negative, but there are a few positive results. Infidelity could cause one, or both partners, to seek much needed professional help. Some issues can be worked through, but require both time and work. If a couple makes it thru an occurrence, they could form a stronger bond, and become thankful for what they do have. The most critical/significant cause of cheating is a lack of emotional intimacy. Over time, the love almost dies. Couples make the poor choice to remain in these dead relationships for long periods of time. The need for love and feeling of importance is crucial to the survival of a relationship. If a partner feels neglected they may seek love from an alternative source. Spending too little time with a partner leaves them feeling their needs and/or desires are unmet. Women are more prone to cheating if they feel unaccepted, and unloved. When affection is missing it can drive an individual to cheat. The rise in infidelity has a tremendous impact on the lives of many people. There is a marriage crisis in America. In 2010, less than 50% of Americans were married. A half century ago almost 75% were married. Happiness in marriages has dropped, and divorce rates have gone up. If something is not done to decrease infidelity, theses rates will continue to go up.

€œWe see and understand things not as they are but as we Essay

â‚ ¬Ã…“We see and understand things not as they are but as we are.â‚ ¬Ã¯ ¿ ½ Discuss this claim in relation to at least two ways of knowing - Essay Example Empiricism is the theory that knowledge can only be gained from actual perceptions. It is an extension of the Aristotelian theory that human mind is a blank slate (or in Aristotle’s words – â€Å"Tabula Rasa†, an empty tablet) and only experience can bring in knowledge. This was later expounded in the 17th century by a number of philosophers like, Locke. As per this theory, only the sensory experiences allow us to understand the world. Soon it could be seen that experiences and sensations, by themselves, cannot explain most of the things like religion, philosophical concepts etc. It was therefore necessary to add an element of inductive inference from the actual sensory perception to convert it into knowledge. This is, by definition, a deviation from the pure empiricism as the inductive inference that a human being makes is dependent on the habits and beliefs of the person in question. Knowledge thus ceases to be an absolute entity anymore and is dependent on the person acquiring the belief. Rationalism states that reason is the fundamental building block of our knowledge. It does not ignore the physical sensory perceptions but argues that the reason in the human mind is responsible for co-relating the events into knowledge. The most famous exponent of this theory was Rene Descartes. His â€Å"cogito ergo sum† or â€Å"I think, therefore I am† is probably the simplest definition of rationalism – where the process of thinking of an individual becomes the keystone of his knowledge. As Babich and Cohen tells us in regard to Descartes that â€Å"because he assumes that the intellect is naturally the same in all humans, everyone can participate in this knowledge if they can think† (Babich and Cohen, p.53). Rationalism is based on certain specific concepts like the intuition/ deduction theory, the innate knowledge theory and the innate concept theory. The intuition/ deduction theory tells us that knowledge

Should English Be Our Official Language Research Paper

Should English Be Our Official Language - Research Paper Example However, such attempts, especially in the congress, have proved futile despite the fact that most of the Americans, i.e. more than 90%, use English as their main language of communication (Lehrer Productions, 2005). This paper is a critical evaluation of whether the US should adopt English as the official language of communication. Despite the fact that English is the most widely used language in the US, the constitution does not mention it or any other language for that matter as the official language of communication. However, there have been attempts from different quarters such as the Congress to enact legislation for that purpose but this has not been achieved. The US is a country, which is full of cultural diversity as its population is a mixture of different races, with some of them having their own unique languages of communication. Some of these languages include and not limited to Spanish, German, Italian, Korean, Greek, and Chinese among others. This has been attributed to the ever increasing number of immigrants entering the country either to do business or to settle and also due to the presence of the descendants of immigrants, who entered the country either as slaves or as settlers during the colonial times. It may be important to note that even the English which is spoken contains different diale cts depending on the speakers, for example with those of African decency, Latinos among others (Crawford, 2000). Various reasons have been brought forward by proponents of adopting English as the country’s official language. This is for example the need to improve national unity. Linguistic diversity around the world has been noted as one of the major contributing factors to bad blood between citizens of a country, and which has the capacity to encourage tribal animosity and violence (US English Inc, 2006).  

ANALYSE THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF OFSTED REPORT PROVIDED. FOR Essay

ANALYSE THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF OFSTED REPORT PROVIDED. FOR EACH IDENTIFIED STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS PROVIDE EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT YOUR VIEW USING Statutory Framework EYFS 2014 - Essay Example The Statutory Requirement provides that The Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) sets the benchmarks necessitating early year’s providers to adhere. Such standards ensure that children learn and develop effectively, safe and the healthy. In order to scrutinize the strength and weakness of Ofsted report, the researcher strictly employs EYFS provisions that seeks to ensure quality and consistency in all early years setting to ensure each child effectively progress and no kids lags behind. Second, a secure foundation via learning and development opportunities that are designed with the needs and interest of every individual child and whether they are regularly assessed. Thirdly, Partnership working with providers and parents as well as cares. Finally, equality of opportunity as well as anti-discriminatory practices for equal inclusion and support of every child. Analysis of the report reveals an active partnership between the providers and fathers that is in line with the provision of the Statutory Requirement. The active cooperation is essential to this organization as staff keep parents updated about their children’s progress and suggest ways in which parents can further support their children’s studies at home. According to the section one of Statutory Requirement, learning and development recognizes the active partnership with parents and practitioners as a promoter of the learning and development of all children in the care besides ensuring that they are set for school. The existing evidence on how children learn and reflect the vast range of knowledge, skills and attitudes required by children as the foundations for real future progress. The Early Years providers, therefore, ascertain that children complete the EYFS in order to grasp the future opportunities. Such active partnership help realize the seven key principles of learning and development such as communication and language, physical development, personal, social and emotional

Advanced Entrepreneurship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 3

Advanced Entrepreneurship - Essay Example The other reason why this product was chose for triangle solutions was so as to introduce the retail market in the united states and also provide for other reasons and factors that can be able to improve the importance of retail market as practiced in the united states (Burton, Parker, & Lawley, 2012). One of the major aim of the Triangle casual shoe wear product is to be able to provide a better quality rang product to the triangle solutions customers. This means that the business will be able to meet the target of getting the product in different countries like Brazil, United Kingdom, China and France. It is a well-known fact that the Chinese market is of the most reputable in the world especially due to its economic cost in the market. France is also famous for its designer wear while brazil has a great market for snicker shoe products that include other forms of footwear. There are also other manufacturers who produce a huge selection of fashion footwear for both men and women in the countries (Burton, Parker, & Lawley, 2012). The product will mainly focus on the united states industry because it is the native home for the triangle solutions meaning that it will be easy to deal with the suppliers in the best way and also be able to get better quality and price. The relationship that the product will create with its competitors will be mostly focussed on the price and market position. In some of the markets, competitor will be found to have reach what is commonly referred to as a modus vivendi, this means that in this situation there are generally understood rules on how competition with other products occur. Market size will also mean that the product will have to look at the value to which the product offers the consumers. The less stable the market size, the greater the rate at which the price of the new product will be determined (Burton, Parker, & Lawley, 2012). There

A Project Failure Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

A Project Failure - Case Study Example It is known that some companies engage in evaluating customer needs, training staff to be more proactive with customers, and/or creating teams or assigning individuals to upgrade customer services. In addition, performance-based companies more frequently compensate sales and other staff at least partially on customer satisfaction scores. This type of business requires effective and unique set of management tools in order to reach a customer and retain him. The aim of the paper is to prove, analyze and evaluate CRM and impact of these strategies on customer relations. The case study describes an attempt of the private Chinese trading company to introduce IT project and improve performance of the organization. I selected this case study for analysis, because it vividly portrays problems and difficulties faced by organizations in IT projects. The majority of case studies describes success factors of CRM but omits difficulties and weaknesses of planning process. The report describes culture and morale of the organizations, research methodology and data collection methods, and causes of the project failure. Then, it gives brief recommendations for other companies how to avoid project failure and introduce CRM (Dow, 1999). The goal of CRM is to examine and analyze customers' needs and wants in order to meet their requirement and expectations. CRM has a great impact on profitability and effective performance of organizations. The importance of CRM is explained by the fact that many organizations have begun to develop global markets and have established face-to-face sales teams either directly, using their own personnel, or indirectly, through contracted sales agents. Bergeron (2002) defines customer relationship management as "the dynamic process of managing a customer-company relationship such that customers elect to continue mutually beneficial commercial exchanges and are dissuaded from participating in exchanges that are unprofitable to the company" (p. 3). In modern environment, CRM and development influence profitability because the attention has shifted to a greater emphasis on the management of the whole system and its relationship with other systems. In this situation, CRM can be seen as a med iator which helps to cope with different demands both within the production system itself and between that and other systems. As environments change, they pose new problems for managers of organizations. Thus, with the emphasis on CRM comes the realization that increasing operating efficiency. CRM influences profitability because it includes changing knowledge and technology, new values, new markets, and changes in the global distribution of wealth. New knowledge, for instance, can invalidate the existing knowledge of an entire industry. When environments become turbulent, complex, and resource constrained, the knowledge and skills that companies once possessed can become useless, and even a hindrance to change. CRM projects acquire new knowledge and technology, and employ these assets in production quickly (Freeland, 2002). Current State of Customer Relationships Forms The case study underlines that the project manager needs excellent planning, management and control skills. He/she should have a good knowledge in psychology and human resource management in order to improve morale and motivation of

Economic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Economic - Essay Example Technological advent has propelled the demand for the fuel around the world irrespective of the price of the same. On the other hand, being a natural resource with exhaustible limits, the fuel cannot be exploited boundlessly. The present research attempts to evaluate the trends in the demand and supply volumes of the commodity. Objectives and Research Questions Rationale behind the policy measures undertaken by different economic agents revolves around the profit that they are likely to yield as a result. As oil is regarded as one of the most important raw materials and hence is a decisive factor behind profit generation, it is highly important to keep a track in the price fluctuations of the same. Purpose of this study will be to analyse the gap between demand and supply of oil during 2000-2005 which justifies the price fluctuations of the commodity. In cases of excess demand, prices are likely to soar high in contrast to situations of excess supply. Thus a suitable research questio n in this case will be to assess the association between policies and availability of oil in the market. Factors determining demand and supply of oil Factors affecting demand of oil Firstly, globalisation has increased the demand of various nations for crude oil which has added to the already high demand for the same. Nations undergoing a period of transition pose a high demand for oil which is regarded as an essential raw material for production. As they are almost always in a rush to improve their economic growth rates, their demand for the fuel is proportionately high. A good example is that of China which has multiplied its demand for oil post the advent of the new millennium, due to similar issues (Energy Information Administration, 2005). Secondly, speculations about political turbulence in the producer nations or chances of stringent ties with their customer nations could lead to hikes in the present demand of oil as the latter want to store more and more reserves of the same . Similar could be the situation when there are possibilities of exchange rate system depreciating in the importing economy. In other words, economies rising high on inflation are likely to demand less of the fuel. Although they might be the consequences of political disruptions, the consuming nations often end up purchasing large stocks of the fuel hence raising its present demand (Pirog, 2005). Lastly, demand for oil is highly dependent upon the availability of other substitute fuels such as coal or natural gas. Regions, which are rich in these resources or could trade them at cheaper prices, attract a lower demand for oil. Moreover, stringency in OPEC policies is also a reason behind the aggregate demand for the fuel. Factors affecting the supply of oil Firstly, the supply function of oil is positively related to the market price of oil in the past. A low market price is of little incentive for the producers who invest lower sums in building refineries and discovering oil mines, to maintain high volumes of future crude oil supplies (Allen, 2005). In addition, higher the market rate of interest is, lower will be the long-run supply of oil in the market as investors will be less attracted towards borrowing and would rather prefer to deposit their money in safe locks (Spann, 1979). Natural catastrophes could prove to be hazardous

Ancient Greek and Ancient Egyptian Art Compared Essay Example for Free

Ancient Greek and Ancient Egyptian Art Compared Essay Egyptian art comes from the paintings the Egyptians created in the tombs of rich people when they died. These pictures were supposed to help the dead person out when he or she reached the next world, where the Egyptians thought you lived after you died in this world. At first, carvers had a hard time painting the pictures but in about 2160 B.C. they started taking short cuts and made their work sloppier. Greek art was much different from the Egyptians art. One of their styles of art was sculpting. In Crete, between about 1700 and 1450 BC, the Minoans produced a lot of medium-sized figurines, mainly made of metal and ivory. The Greeks learned how to make big stone statues from the Egyptians. At this time many Greek men were working in Egypt as soldiers, and so they had a chance to see Egyptian statues and learn how they were made. One Egyptian technique is to have a triangle for the face and two upside-down triangles for the hair. This makes the hair help support the neck, which otherwise might be too thin to hold up the head. Another Egyptian idea is to have one foot a little in front of the other, which also helps the statue to stand up and not fall over. One difference is that the Greeks always made their statues nude (without clothes), while the Egyptian statues always wore clothes. This is because the Greeks thought that mens bodies were sacred and that the gods liked to see them. In the Severe style, sculptors began to make statues more true to life, and with more feeling in their faces and their movements. Instead of all being standing straight up and looking sacred and peaceful, now statues began to do things: drive a chariot, carry something, throw a spear, or ride a horse. And sometimes they looked sad, or frightened, or nasty, depending on who they were supposed to be. At the same time, sculptors took more interest in making the muscles and bones look true to life too. The Severe style didnt last very long, and after about thirty years it was replaced by the Classical style. Greek sculptors began to experiment with honoring the gods by showing the beauty and grace of the human body, especially the bodies of young, athletic men (womens bodies were still not shown without their clothes). The sculptors also became more interested in the three-dimensionality of sculpture: people being able to  see it from all different sides, and not just from the front. At the end of the 400s BC, Greece, and especially Athens, was devastated by a terrible war which involved nearly all the Greek city-states, the Peloponnesian War. The end of the war left Greeks too poor for much sculpture, but when people did begin creating new sculpture again it was in a new style. There is more emotion, especially sad feelings like grief. There is more interest in women, who are sometimes shown without clothes now. Portraits of individuals also became more popular. As you can see, Greek art was different from Egyptian art in many ways and Greeks had many forms of art work unlike the Egyptians.

Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emission In Bangladesh Economics Essay

Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emission In Bangladesh Economics Essay Atmosphere is a global public good and all nations around the globe dump pollution in the atmosphere at zero cost. As a result the concentrations of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) have been increasing in the atmosphere leading to its market failure. The four major components of GHG are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and F-gases. In targeting GHG emission, main focus is given to CO2 since it constitutes a large share of the GHG . The rising concentrations of GHG in the atmosphere are bringing considerable changes to climate for example rise in global mean temperature by 0.4-0.8Â °C and average annual rate in sea level by 1-2 mm in the last century . Reducing GHG emissions in Bangladesh Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries of the threat to climate change. IPCC report suggests, a one-metre rise in sea levels would flood 29846 sq km (total area of Bangladesh is 147570 sq km) of Bangladesh and create 14.8 million people landless . Most of the land of Bangladesh is less than 20 feet high from the sea level. Bangladeshs population is 150.5 million in 2011 and per capita greenhouse emission is 0.3 in 2008 . Bangladesh is currently contributing to global carbon emissions by an amount slightly less than its share in world GDP . CO2 emissions per capita (Tonnes) Year Figure 1: GHGs emission by Bangladesh, India, China and Pakistan Source: Although Bangladesh has low GHG emission, its paying higher prices for the consequences of climate change associated with higher GHG concentration in the atmosphere. The frequency of natural disasters has rapidly increased. Bangladesh has been always arguing in favour of reduced global GHG emission in climate negotiations. Bangladeshs own GHG emission is also showing an increasing trend. There is a projection of Bangladeshs greenhouse gas emission under different growth scenarios up to 2050: Source: Figure 2 The vulnerability of Bangladesh for climate change demands interventions to reduce GHG emission from her own end. There may be different policy intervention instruments for reducing greenhouse gas emission like creation of property rights, market based incentives (a tax, emission trading scheme), different forms of regulation, subsidies etc. When taking any policy, it is important to evaluate the policy under certain standards like environmental effectiveness, cost effectiveness, distributional impacts and institutional feasibilities. Two proposed policy interventions to reduce GHG emissions in Bangladesh are: Regulation (setting renewable energy target to reduce carbon emission) Regulations are most common form of interventions to reduce GHG emission like renewable energy target, light bulbs, specifying production technology or input to use or not to use etc. Market based incentives to reduce pollution (tax on carbon emission) Market based interventions create a price incentive to internalise the cost of externality and correct the market failure. Regulation : Renewable energy target A tax on carbon emission Regulations can be imposed by considering the particular circumstances of a firm or industry. For example, it is possible to set a renewable energy target for a firm consuming more energy after a limit. A tax on carbon emission is uniform in nature. For example, two companies electricity generating and transport, have to pay same amount of tax on each tonne of GHG emission. The connection between regulations and GHG emission outcome is more direct. So the outcome of regulation on GHG emission can be predicted with some degree of certainty. Tax gives assurance about the marginal cost of reducing pollution but the amount of pollution reduction is uncertain under taxation. Regulation requires reliable and accurate information because abatement cost will possibly rise when the regulators do not have accurate information. Sometimes tax is more complex compared to regulations. In setting the tax rate, knowledge of all functions, MPC, MEC and MPB, or MB and MC is required. Regulations require changes over time as MC function changes with changes in production technology, input costs, and product demand. MC curve shifts over time with changes in production technology, input costs, and product demand requiring changes in tax. Regulations are unlikely to be lowest cost. Tax allows the producers to find least cost or cost effective way of reducing pollution. Regulation does not generate government revenue but creates transaction cost for monitoring and implementing those. Tax generates government revenue. Regulations are appropriate for developing countries as they build initial capacity by bringing new technology e.g. solar energy, wind power etc. Tax interventions are appropriate for developed countries as they require more institutional feasibility and sensitive monitoring system Regulation adds implicit extra production cost. Tax adds explicit extra production cost and often politically unpopular and may assist rent seeking by lobby groups. Regulations are imposed by targeting goods and services which emit more carbon. Tax on carbon gives signal to producers and consumers about which goods and services produce more carbon and which produce less or none. Therefore, consumers and producers can plan to shift from high-carbon products and technologies to low-carbon products and technologies. Under regulation, firms do not have incentives to reduce pollution after meeting the regulation target. Under tax, firm have incentives. Renewable energy target The current potential demand of energy in Bangladesh is 5569 MW where supply is less than 4000 MW . The economy of Bangladesh has been growing at a rate of 6-7 percent from last few years . These are causing rise in energy demand which in turn increases GHG emission. Bangladeshs GHG emission from energy sector is relatively low as most of the power is generated from natural gas which causes low carbon emission. The current contribution of renewable energy is 0.5 percent. The government is planning to increase the share of renewable sources in total power generation by 5% in 2015 and 10% in 2020 . Source: Figure 3: Power Generation Fuel Mix of Bangladesh in 2009 But as the reserve of natural gas has been depleting very quickly and the demand of energy is increasing, dependency on fossil fuel and coal based energy is increasing. As a result it is expected that the GHG emission will rise. Natural gas contributed 64 percent of CO2 emission and petroleum products contributed 36 percent emission of Bangladesh during 2008-2009 . Efficiency of regulation There will be an efficiency gain for regulation if the regulation is implemented in cost effective way. Price ($) KW electricity S= S + Regulatory Cost S= MPC Regulatory Cost MC MB Welfare Gain 0 = em Reduction of pollution Figure 4: Market effects of regulation Quantity of coal and fuel produced electricity P P Q e* Q D=MPB=MSB Price and cost per unit pollution As the government is trying to increase the share of renewable energy in total energy, its imposing some regulatory costs on coal and fuel produced electricity. In figure 4, MPC=S curve shifts to S due to the regulatory cost. The amount of electricity produced by coal and fuel has decreased from Q to Q while price has increased from P to P. In the second part, initially at the market solution, reduction of pollution is 0. Due to the regulation, the amount of pollution reduction increases from 0 to e*. Optimal level of pollution reduction will be at the intersection of MB and MC curve. From 0 to e* level of pollution reduction MB > MC and the amount of welfare gain is the blue triangle. The correlation between production of coal and fuel based electricity and GHG emission is very high. So the regulations imposed on those will directly influence the amount of GHG emission. Regulations are unlikely to be lowest cost. For example, the cost of producing electricity by solar panel is higher compared to the cost of producing electricity by coal. Table 1 Source: But the price of coal and gas is also increasing which is lowering the gap of the costs. A renewable energy plant like solar panel can reliably serve for decades without emitting GHG at lowest maintenance cost. Under regulation, once firms meet the regulation target Q*, no incentive for further reduction. Reduction of pollution Cost per unit Q* Figure 5: Regulation and pollution reduction $ If regulations are not met Distributional effects Firms producing energy by using coal and fuel will lose their share in the market as their quantity decreases which will also reduce the amount of GHGs emission. The price of coal and fuel produced electricity will rise. The prices of products which use electricity a lot will also increase and influence the buyers of those goods. To increase the supply of renewable energy, more renewable energy plants will be built. It will increase the demand for renewable energy accessories like solar panel, wind turbine etc. So the suppliers of those inputs will gain. Initially at the market solution, amount of pollution reduction is zero. When the regulations are imposed the amount of pollution reduction increases to e*. The people who are polluted initially are gaining as the amount of pollution is decreasing. A tax on carbon emission A tax on the emitter of GHG can also be proposed to reduce GHG emission in Bangladesh. The tax will place an explicit additional cost on per unit emission. Before the tax, polluters emit GHG at zero marginal costs. The result is excess supply of GHG gas in the atmosphere leading towards its market failure. In presence of the tax, polluters emit GHG at a cost equal to tax rather than zero. This tax sets a price of GHG emission in the market where the market chooses the quantity of emission. Efficiency of carbon tax Price ($) KW electricity Quantity of electricity MSC= MPC + MEC S= MPC Regulatory Cost MC MB Welfare Gain 0 = em Reduction of Pollution MEC Govt. Revenue Figure 6: Market effects of tax e* Pt P Qt Qm MPB Pm Price and cost per unit pollution In figure 6, the production of electricity generates GHG emission by product and MEC curve shows this negative externality. Market equilibrium is at the intersection of MPC and MPB curve and the market price is Pm and quantity is Qm. But the social optimum is at the intersection of MSC and MPB curve. To attain the efficient level of Q, if a tax is imposed on Q by the amount of MEC then the level of output and price will be Qt and Pt respectively. The amount of electricity has decreased from Qm to Qt while price has increased from Pm to Pt. In the second part, initially at the market solution, reduction of pollution is 0. Due to the tax, the amount of pollution reduction increases from 0 to e* and the amount of welfare gain is the blue triangle. In the above figure, tax sets price, market chooses quantity. The efficiency of the programme depends on the ability of setting tax at a point that induces behavioural change. Distributional effects Firms producing output that by product emit GHG will lose their share in the market as their quantity decreases which will also reduce the amount of GHG emission. The price of electricity will rise which will also increase the prices of products which use electricity a lot in production. The consumers of those products will be worse off by paying higher prices. Moreover, more than 75 percent of Bangladeshs export revenue comes from Ready Made Garments (RMG) sector which consumes high electricity in the production process. A rise in electricity price led by the carbon tax will increase their production cost and reduce their competitiveness in the international market. There is a gain in government revenue by the yellow rectangle. A portion of the generated revenue may be used to compensate RMG producers by providing financial incentives. Most taxes create distortions but carbon tax corrects distortion. Carbon tax may yield double dividend one by reducing emission and another by financing the reductions of incentives. Carbon tax increases the amount of pollution reduction from 0 to e*. The people who were polluted initially are gaining as the amount of pollution is decreasing. Tax allows the producers to find least cost or cost effective way of reducing pollution. In figure 8, from 0 to e* level of pollution, tax is higher than MC of pollution reduction. Firms will find it profitable to reduce pollution by inventing new technology, investing in research and development rather than paying the tax. After e* level of pollution reduction, MC of pollution reduction is higher than the tax. So it will be cost effective for the firm to pay the tax. Price and cost per unit pollution Reduction of pollution T MC of reduction of pollution e* Figure 7: Pollution reduction efficiency 0 = em Tax In Bangladesh, relative elasticities of the products should be considered in setting the carbon tax because tax imposed on carbon passes to buyers and the share that will pass on depends on relative elasticities. In figure 8, the full burden of taxes passes on to consumers when elasticity is perfect. Price ($) KW electricity Quantity of electricity MSC= MPC + MEC S= MPC Regulatory Cost MSC=MPC+MEC MB Qt Quantity of electricity MEC Figure 8: Effects of tax on price depending on elasticities Qm Pt P Qt Qm MPC Pm Pt Pm Price ($) KW electricity A carbon tax will increase the cost of production for not only the products directly involve pollution e.g. electricity and transport but also for other products using electricity and petroleum inputs in production. As their production cost rise, their price will also rise. 31.5% population of Bangladesh live below the poverty line in 2010 . The carbon tax will increase the burden of poor people through increased price. To ameliorate the burden, financial assistance can be provided to the low-income households by using the tax revenue . In figure 9, we can see that as tax is imposed on electricity, the price of electricity increases so the budget line of the consumers will rotate inward and the consumer will move to a lower indifference curve ICt. The consumer can be compensated by an income subsidy which attains the same level of utility as before tax. Quantity of electricity IC ICt Quantity of X Figure 9: Income substitution to the consumers In 2009, 5 percent of total labour force of Bangladesh was unemployed . A carbon tax may deteriorate the scenario by occurring creative destruction associated with the jobs of carbon intensive products and production processes. But it will also create jobs for carbon extensive products and production processes. The net aggregative employment effect is close to zero. Recommendation Energy is the lifeblood of growing industry sector of Bangladesh. The intensity of current potential energy deficit can be substantially met by fuelling the growth of renewable energy. Different financial incentives can be offered for that purpose. For example, Bangladesh imports renewable accessories from abroad like solar panels from Germany. If import duties are removed from the accessories of solar panel, the cost of producing solar energy will decrease. Moreover, the poor people living in the rural areas having no electricity access also lack the capability to install renewable energy at household level. Government can provide them financial assistance in launching solar panel. Private investment should also be encouraged by creating proper financial incentives. For large scale investment Public Private Partnership (PPP) can be formed. RD for inventing renewable accessories at domestic level can reduce the production cost substantially. It may be difficult to enforce a carbon tax with underdeveloped institutions occurring higher administrative costs. In Bangladesh, the current tax structure lacks the capability and institutional feasibility to implement carbon tax. Before introducing carbon tax, the tax mechanism is needed to be restructured by developed institutional capability. In setting the tax main focus should be given to on electricity, gas, coal, some petroleum, fugitive emissions and some manufacturing while exclude agriculture, petroleum used by small vehicles and primary production and small business. Conclusion Although Bangladesh is attaining persistent economic growth, per capita energy consumption is still very low. So in future there will be increase in total energy production and consumption which in turn will increase the amount of carbon emission . A key way to transform into low carbon economy is imposing regulations on renewable energy target which can create two-fold benefits for Bangladesh- environmental and energy sufficiency. The reduction in GHG emission in the atmosphere will bring environmental improvements. Moreover, it will reduce the potential demand and supply gap of power and help to attain energy sufficiency. A carbon tax can also be charged by restructuring tax mechanism with substantial infrastructural improvements.